Charles Dickens’ Satire of Victorian Culture in Oliver Twist

In the novel Oliver Twist, Charles Dickens ridicules Victorian society; he focuses on the Poor Law system, orphans, workhouses, and the characterization of Oliver and Nancy, using sarcasm, and the comparison between the real world and the world of Oliver. When Dickens was just a child, a lot of traumatic things happened to him. At twelve, his father went to prison. He then had to work in a shoe blacking factory. He knew poverty and that’s why he was aware of social problems and had deep feeling of social commitment. Dickens was one of the most important social writers of history.He criticized moral, social, and economic problems in the Victorian era through his fiction works (â€Å"Charles† 1. ) The emotional and symbolizing power that Oliver Twist has is he value in Dickens life (Linsay 172. ) While writing the book, Victorian themes like poverty, injustice, mean characters, and punishment were all live issues in the world. Dickens didn’t like the 1834 New Poor Act, which criminalized the poor. He didn’t like the harsh utilitarian ethics of it. The Poor Law Board thought that people that could do work didn’t get anything better than the poorest worker.Due to the emergence of trade unions, the Poor Law system fell into decline. There were liberal welfare reforms during the twentieth century; it wasn’t until 1948 when it was officially abolished. Illustrated in Olive Twist, Dickens showed the reading society the harsh symbol of realities in the Victorian era. In the novel, there are a lot of orphans. Dickens depicts them as poor, underfed, oppressed, and severely punished (â€Å"Charles† 1. ) The fear of destitution and poverty was always present in the minds of adults, and children alike in Victorian society.There were many orphans, and one in fourteen of many towns population of children were classified as paupers in 1863. Most of the needy population relied on the parish system through the Poor Law. A Board of Directors was elected, and in many occurrences, Dickens doesn’t put them across as the â€Å"best fit†, even though the goal in the Acts was to help these paupers. Dickens uses sarcasm to write about the Board. It was once a Poor Law system that encouraged work ethic (â€Å"Poverty† 1. ) He describes them in the novel as â€Å"very sage, deep philosophical men† (Dickens 11.)Dickens talks how two orphans, Oliver and Rose, are tried with adversity which teaches them the virtues for others and love. It’s the life of pain and alienation that help them become pure characters, contrasting the fact of the stealing, wild paupers of the Victorian era (Baldridge. ) In the novel, Charles based the character of Oliver on eighteenth century characteristics. Charles’s daydreams of childhood were at bay, and it gave him an emotionally true picture of the exploited children of his own time (Linsay 179. ) In the workhouses that orphans were sent to, there wa s strict discipline.They were given just barely enough food to survive, and were punished harshly if they didn’t follow strict rules. In the novel, Dickens explains what happens to Oliver when he asks for more food. ‘Please, sir, I want some more. ’ The master was a fat, healthy man; but he turned very pale. He gazed in stupefied astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the copper. The assistants were paralyzed with wonder; the boys with fear. Dickens shows the reader through Oliver’s hunger how bad it was for him.Everyone around the food master thought surely Oliver was to be hung for asking such an explicit question. Instead, Oliver is sent to immediate confinement, awaiting a new master. Laborers had tasks like stone breaking, oakum-picking, sack-making, and corn-grinding. Work conditions were tough, even though they were required to be moderately clean. Patricia Pulham and Brad Beaven explain in their article enti tled â€Å"Poverty and the Poor† how in his journal, Workhouse Words, Dickens investigates the conditions of the workhouse conditions.When he went to the workhouse debate in the 1850s, he witnessed poverty, misery, starvation, and all around death these defined the lack of the workhouse system. Dickens achieves the simplicity of the characters because the way he presents them and describes them doesn’t contain any indistinctness. To some, Oliver might seem sentimental, and Nancy a prostitute with unsure feelings, but these depictions are conventional, and are the marks and representations of a tragedy. Oliver is looked at as an â€Å"item of mortality† who will be a new responsibility for the parish and is only worth selling to the general public when he misbehaves for 5 pounds.Society views Oliver, with its money ethic, as a liability, for he really doesn’t portray a soul or spirit in the Board’s eyes. Oliver’s characteristic development mi ght seem pompous, because he doesn’t really act or talks like the other children. Dickens removes him from the natural speech of all other characters, and gives him the emblem of susceptible innocence and exposure. Oliver is managed by anyone who comes in contact with him. He’s like a puppet, influenced beyond his view. Actually, through most of the novel, Oliver often doesn’t know where he is or who he is.Social order is shown through the rough unimportance of Oliver’s concealed humanity (Duffy 5. ) Oliver never learns how to juxtapose the alabaster and pitch social vocabularies in his story in any way that he might earn about the realities of Victorian culture (Baldridge. ) Dickens depicts Nancy as forced into prostitution by poverty, her peers, and her corrupt environment. Dickens knew of the victimization of Victorian women and wanted to show that Nancy’s sweet character was corrupted by this and that she didn’t deserve her fate (Charles 1.)Even at the cost of her life, Nancy feels change in her heart. She is loyal to her friends, and she goes to save Oliver and Rose. Dickens isn’t emotionalizing iniquity and crime. The truth of life is being represented (Al- Mahdi 3-4. ) Charles Dickens successfully takes the harsh realities of the Victorian era and employs them into the novel Oliver Twist. Through his satire and characterization, he creates a negative image of the cruel things that happened to people in workhouses, orphans, and children. Charles Dickens will always be remembered as one of the best social commentators in history.

Book The Problem of Media: U.S. Communication Politics

The book The Problem of Media: U.S. Communication Politics in the Twenty-First Century written by Robert W. McChesney discusses the issue of media Reform. He argues that, â€Å"The Policies, structures, subsidies and institutions that are created to control direct and regulate the media will be responsible for the logic and nature of the media system whether their content is good, bad or a combination, the media therefore presents a political problem for any society, and an unavoidable one at that† (16). He contends that there are two main issues on this problem.   The first problem is the structure that creates the content of the information and the second is the structures themselves.   He believes that the way society makes it decisions on how to structure the system and how it decides to solve this needs reformation.   Debates, he believes, will direct shape and create value to the media system. McChesney writes of how media will exist in all societies.   But their structure and content is determined cultural, economic and political and this determines the amount of solutions each society has to choose from.   In different societies the controlling government decides how this is structured.   He mentions dictatorships and authoritarian regimes will create the type of media that will influence and give him more power and stopping any chance of opposition.   With a democratic society the problem exists between those with power and those with none.   In this society the power is with the media and it is this power that gives a strong support in the building of democracy making media a political tool. The problems with media being a political tool in a democracy, he states is well known.   The foundation of this is that in order to have a democratic society the citizens must be informed and the media is the tool for this.  Ã‚   It is not that the media is to create the democracy but help to make it more effective to members of that society.   The issue in the reform is all about content.   If it is balanced with views that express both sides of the road.   Giving an opposite stand to democracy, equally important for the society members to make choices on how to structure their society and even more important is how media affects economics. Media’s beginning influences were in economics and soon spread to politics.   McChesney believes that, â€Å"In the United States the starting point for grasping the problem with media is seeing where the media fits in the broader capitalistic economic system† (117).   The problem is between the role media has in the profit-making commercial structured organizations and the need for information that deals with information needed for a democracy.   â€Å"It is this tension that fuels much of the social concern around media and media policy making† (17). The author gives great attention to the meaning of problem and how it relates to what is deemed the problem of media.   I thought this to be kind of repetitious because he gives meaning to the word problem often throughout the book.   I thought that maybe he was trying to make a point at how media will take something and give it so many different meanings as he did.   He then goes on to give a history of the media to give the reader a sense of where it was coming from to see where it was going.   Giving a good historical account of the affects of broadcasting in the 1930’s that created the way our society makes media policy. He then moves into an analysis into how media became corrupt, deceitful, and missing ethical bases just within this century.   McChesney believes that the United States has not faced these problems making media a servant to those in society that are self-servant.   These are usually the ones that make any decisions in private such as the media corporations that are driven by profits, ignoring what society needs. â€Å"This system has contributed to a political crisis of the highest magnitude and unless it is confronted directly will severely limit our ability to make progress on any of the other major social and political problems that face the nation† (21).   Media should help to give the society an ability to have informed debates on issues that arise from that society. After reading the book it gave me much to think about, but really no clear solution.   Granted he did talk of reforms but in what sense?   In my opinion reform should come in the way we educate our society.   Now with new technology freedom of speech is a whole new attitude.   Everyone has something to say, whether right or wrong.   I do think there should be some kind of reform, but I’m not sure what kind of reform would be effective.   Education society more on what the meanings of context and content would be more effective than trying to define the problem in multiple ways. I really didn’t understand context or content until I went to college.   It’s pretty simple but applying it everyday wasn’t something I did until college.   Now everything I read or see on television I take with a grain of salt, until I research it a little more I don’t hold it true.   This kind of education needs to be applied in primary learning structures.   This would help greatly with structuring a well informed society. I felt the book was very informative, but difficult to read.   I believe that this would make a very good book for educational structures to use.   It awakened an issue in me that I knew was there, but really didn’t think about too much.   I believe this to be pretty true with much of society.   Just yesterday a friend had mentioned something he had heard on the radio about making young school children in Australia stop sing a Christmas song that used the phrase â€Å"Ho, Ho, Ho† because of the implications of it’s meaning, whore. At first I was shocked and angry but after thinking awhile I first thought, the content wasn’t probably reliable or it was taken totally out of context and if it had to do with a more important issue I would have researched the information to find the truth.   This is why I believe media reformation is something that needs to be addressed but the key to the solution is education. Works Cited: McChesney, Robert W.   The Problem of Media: U.S. Communication Politics in the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Twenty-First Century.   New York: Monthly Review Press, 2004.   

Course Concept Redesign Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Course Concept Redesign - Coursework Example In addition, the new student can present their views by commenting on the video and get feedbacks from their fellow students. The search strategy used article databases in identifying the three sources on the concept of the greenhouse effect and climate change. In the first source, Reinfried and colleagues argue that it is difficult changing student’s everyday ideas of the greenhouse effect. The challenge that environmental education face is creating of instructional setting aimed to foster student’s conceptual understanding of the concept of the greenhouse effect. In facilitating students conceptual development regarding the greenhouse effect, it is critical to design learning materials that promote active cognitive learning and focused on achieving deep understanding of the concept. Reinfried et al., present in the article, a developed learning material based on the theory of understanding and reasoning. They compared the efficacy of the design with standard learning materials by using pre-, post and follow-up test. In examining the student’s understanding and knowledge acquisition o ver the three measurement test, Reinfried et al., used both qualitative and quantitative methods. The study outcome demonstrated that the group instructed according to the design focused on in-depth learning had better knowledge gains and retention compared to the group taught using standard learning materials. The strength of the article, therefore, is that it provides an instructional design that engages learners in high cognitive activities, which enhance deep conceptual understanding of the abstract and complex concept of the greenhouse effect. However, the article has a weakness in presenting a comparative study conducted for a long a duration of time because conceptual changes require much time to develop. In the second source, Ogden et al., points that the extent of climate change affects human health in a

My organization as a learning organization in obtaining parts for Research Paper

My organization as a learning organization in obtaining parts for military vehicles - Research Paper Example Wallace (92) suggests that all organizations should learn because without learning, organization will not survive especially in the current globalization era; an organization with a strong learning culture achieves effective business performance. Organization leaders may think that by getting their organization to learn is just a matter of articulating a clear mission or vision, offering right incentives or training employees, however, there is a lot that should be done in the face of intensifying global competitive environment where there is increased technology advancement and shift in consumption preferences. A successful learning organization should offer psychological safety to employees, encourage teamwork or team learning, manage culture, communicate effective and have a shared vision. Question 1: Characteristics of the Ideal Learning Organization One of the characteristics for the ideal learning organization is existence of a shared vision, which everyone should agree on. An ideal learning organization should have an effective shared vision, which guides them, but this should be agreed by everyone in the organization; this is vital because it will enable the organization to work together towards achieving the vision of the organization effectively. Secondly, people should openly communicate with others effectively without fear of criticism, as effective communication is the key aspect towards the success of an organization; therefore, communication should be openly and information should be conveyed well across the organization, as this will contribute to successful organizational performance. Thirdly, it is an organization where people discard their way of thinking and the standard routines they employ for performing their tasks or solving problems. In other words, an ideal organization is the one, which is ready or able to change its behaviors, and mid-sets as result of experience (Marquardt 45). Lastly, an ideal organizational learning is where there is teamwork or team learning. This is where people work and share information together through learning as a team in order to accomplish the organizational goals effectively. Teamwork is crucial in any organization because it contributes to effective decision-making and accomplishment of work faster; thus contributing to effective organizational performance. Question 2: The Observable Behaviors for Each Characteristic One of the observable behaviors for shared vision is that the organization engages everyone in creating a shared vision, which directs the organization towards achieving their stated goals. For instance, the sense of purpose begins with recruiting employees with effective skills and matches their values with the organizational values. For instance, some rules in the organization are implemented by shared behaviors, values and beliefs. Culture form the basis through which an employee operates within the organization context, and secondly, there is open communication an d everything across the organization is well communicated effectively. Thirdly, people are always ready to change their behaviors through constant learning. Moreover, there are significant changes because the organization has transformed and become an innovative working environment; thus improving in terms of performance. Lastly, there is effective teamwork because the work is accomplished within the stipulated period and people always learn together as a team.

What good life is Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

What good life is - Essay Example At some cases, the trip is such a rapid process one hardly realizes to have not gotten anywhere interesting in the end. Readers get a good time they hardly care. However, repeatedly, the poem ask s a lot from the reader and very few given for compensation. Subjects also limit pay-offs, inchoate and too minor, puzzles with gears can complicate churning and might finally reveal the clunk and clink of dullness of mind. The emotionally and spiritually flat dressed up information in technician is some type of poetry, but this is not to a large extent. Poetry with a few conviction and clear voice is more interesting, even when it is not formally accomplished. In the poem entitled â€Å"love† by Michael Dickman, he expresses how people fall in love. This is mostly in weddings and restaurants as they take wine. He analyses various environments where people often like making love and happiness as a sign of love. These occasions are naturally a symbol of good life. They make friendship with strangers as they watch movies. In this poem Dickman, explains how men fall in love with girls in restaurants. He brings out the issue of thighs, how it contributes to love. He uses an example of a boy who sold them popcorns meets a girl who was selling tickets. Dickman explains how love without care come. He compares it with how teeth are in the mouth. That he loved her the way his teeth loved the mouth. He compares his love to that of a boy he knew would attempt to have a purple dinosaur who loved him for real. He says that there is no one who can account for it. That in fact there are no people to do the accounting to balance the books love. He argues that there are even no one to measure the speed and distance between two loving hearts. As Dickman explains about happiness in love, he explains how S&M goddess love her husband. He puts clearly how the goddess brings him to a mall, leading him through the court of food by a leash. This is all because of strong feeling of love.

Snow by Orhan Pamuk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Snow by Orhan Pamuk - Essay Example Ka’s friend suggests him to go to a town called Kars, which is at the border of Turkey. Ka’s friend works for a newspaper, and felt it would be best for Ka to move to the border of Turkey with Armenia and Georgia, under the disguise of a newspaper journalist. Kars at this time was facing a number of people committing suicide. Ka started to interview people around this area and tried his best to learn about why the suicides. The increasing numbers of suicides were causing a lot of tensions among the people of the city, especially among the local Muslim people as this was not allowed by religion. It was here that Ka was reunited with a friend called Ipek. Ipek and Ka went back a long way, when Ka had feeling for her. Now Ka was located in the hotel owned by Ipek’s father. It was by this time that Ipek had already been married to a man called Muhtar, however had also been divorced. This was mainly due to the growing interest of Muhtar in the Islami political. Ka and Ipek meet up at a cafà © here the duo witnessed a shoot out of the local director of the Institute of Education by a group of Muslim extremist. This Muslim extremist was from a different city and blamed the director for the death of a young lady called Teslime, as the director had banned head scarves in schools. Following this incident, Ka went to Muhtar, to discuss the experience of finding Islam, which was related to a storm and a meeting a charismatic sheikh called Saadettin Efendi. It was here that the duo was arrested by the police and Muhtar was beaten and Ka was questioned for the death of the minis ter. The first parts of the book are mostly in the view point of a third person. The speech used here is in the third person however in the view point of Ka. The narrator at a number of places seems to tell the story on Ka’s journals and correspondence. The information provided by the narrator at times is before Ka knows about it and

Dangerous Climate Change. What Strategies Are Available To Avert The Essay

Dangerous Climate Change. What Strategies Are Available To Avert The Onset Of Dangerous Climate Change - Essay Example Some reports have shown European summers getting hotter, Alaskan streams and other lakes getting warmer, and our polar ice caps allegedly thawing (Schneider and Lane, 2006). More than just the actual warming of the planet, the impact of such warming has certainly captured the world’s attention. These are the major issues which have caused much concern among authorities and the public in general. This issue has managed to affect the environmental, as well as the business community with projected losses in profits accredited to climate change. Environmental experts claim that as our planet continues to grow warmer, more environmentally related disasters would be expected to occur with much stronger hurricanes, storms, and typhoons building up in the warmer oceans (Lemonic, 2008). These experts further emphasize that man has to address the issues which pertain to climate change in order to stem the progression of this phenomenon into dangerous levels. The word ‘dangerousâ⠂¬â„¢ seems to have now been strongly associated with climate change. Its actual meaning in the context of climate change will be discussed in this paper. This paper shall discuss climate change and the different ways by which its implications can actually be quantified to dangerous levels. It will discuss the point where climate change can be considered acceptable and the point where it is considered to be dangerous. This study is being undertaken in order to establish a thorough and comprehensive understanding of climate change as well as its implications to our society and our efforts towards reversing its impact. Discussion Defining ‘dangerous climate change’ ‘Dangerous climate change’ is a term which was introduced legally during the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (McGuire, n.d). Climate researchers have come up with different definitions in order to define the point at which climate change can be considered dangerous. Schneide r and Lane (2006, as cited by Spratt and Sutton, 2008) have suggested different metrics in measuring climate change and such metrics have included: the risks to unique and threatened geophysical or biophysical systems; risks related with extreme weather events; total damages; temperature thresholds to large-scale events; risks to global ecosystems; loss of human cultures; key sustainability metrics of water, energy, agriculture, health, and biodiversity; the number of people put at risk; and the triggering of irreversible chain of events. These are all metrics which can be used in order to determine how dangerous the impact of climate change is. Dawson and Spannagle (2009) discuss that dangerous climate change is the degree of climate change which violates Article 2 of the UNFCCC. Article 2 basically sets forth that the function of the UNFCCC is to manage the emission of greenhouse gases to levels which would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the weather and climate system (Dawson and Spannagle, 2009). In effect, such acceptable levels must be achieved within levels which would: â€Å"allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change; ensure that food production is not threatened; and enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner† (Dawson and Spannagle, 2009, p. 112). Article 2 does not use the exact words ‘dangerous climate change,’ however such words are accepted in terms of dangerous anthropogenic interference; it also refers to the man-made toxic chemical emissions which trigger climate changes beyond their natural patterns. The UNFCCC has not come up with a clear definition

The Reform in the US Education System Assignment

The Reform in the US Education System - Assignment Example In this regard, the assignment intends to investigate the problem related to the given case study and identify changes required for implementing the same as well as explain the plan that would be used to bring about the change. It can be identified that the first goal is to increase the standard of all students in the nation and ensure their success. In this regard, the major stakeholders will be students, teachers, and administrations. It is important for each stakeholder to know about the goal as it would not be possible to attain the goal without the support from each other. The second goal is to incorporate technology into the education system. The stakeholders for this goal will include students, teachers, and administrations. Accordingly, the current era is driven by constant evolution and hence these stakeholders must reveal their understanding towards the changing educational system. Next goal is regarding comparability and equity. The stakeholders for this goal would include students, teachers, and administrations. It is equally important that all stakeholders are aware of the goal as it is pivotal that fairness and equality are maintained in the education system without any discrimination. In the similar context, developing career-ready standard is another important goal, which needs to be focused upon in order to ensure positive reform in the education system, Accordingly, the teachers, students, and administrations will be the stakeholders and the goals is important for them as it would enable them to determine the path in which students are moving (Gardner & Mendoza, 2010). Finally, promoting innovation in the education system is another important aspect of the changes that need to be brought in order to eliminate the gaps associated with the current education system. Students, teachers, and administration will be the major stakeholders.

Window Shopping in Britain Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Window Shopping in Britain - Case Study Example The reports by the media that shopping is a major pastime activity in Britain, is true. Zara Fashions is one of the fashion and clothing companies that invest heavily in marketing its products. Shopping is an important activity in Britain. Shopping is not taken just as a necessity whereby individuals go to buy what they need; it has more of a social meaning. In Britain, shopping is one of the pastime activities. Shopping for necessities such as food is done on a regular basis and without much thought. However, shopping for goods that are not necessities is more organized. For luxurious goods, more effort is put in shopping with prior preparation that involves research on potential shopping areas. Most of the people in Britain do their shopping when they have enough time rather than when they are in a hurry. Thus, most of the shopping is done during the evenings and on the weekends. As a social activity, most shopping is not done just by an individual rather; most of the shoppers are accompanied. Window shopping has a high social meaning in Britain. This behaviour is observed in most of the cities and towns in Britain. Most people admire products in shopping marts and supermarkets. Window shopping plays a big role in helping most people make decisions on the kind of products to buy. Although window shopping is common in almost all products; clothing and fashion marts attract most of the window shoppers (Sullivan, Adcorck, 2002). This shopping behaviour in most of the Britain people has influenced the way marketing for clothing and fashion is done. Window displays are a key means of marketing fashion and clothing. The trend of fashion and clothing involves frequent changes in fashion. In consequence, the taste of the customer also changes. Most customers are attracted to fashions that are new to the market and are attractive to their eyes. Thus, before making a decision on the kind of fashion or clothing to buy, individuals must have come across the fashion or clothing. In making decisions, most customers base their decisions on having seen someone else in the fashion or having come across the fashion in a display window. A display window is the first thing that a customer comes across before entering a fashion shop (Leydenfrost, 2006, 230). When entering the shop, the customer usually has an idea on the kind of clothing that he or she is attracted to. Most people go for window shopping in fashion shops to update themselves on the new fashions in the market. Thus, the displays in the fashion shops are made in a manner that is attractive to customers and that send a good message about a product of a business Zara Fashions is one of the most successful fashion and clothing company in the world. In London, the company has a store along Regent Street. In all its stores, Zara fashion takes its marketing very seriously. The displays in the stores enable the different varieties of fashions to be displayed under different categories (Sullivan, Adcorck, 2002, 23). The major categories in the London Zara fashion store are the men's and women's apparel. The other categories are children's fashion and fashions for various occasions. Occasions such as weddings, executive affairs, church and casual dressing are featured in the store. The window display in Zara fashion aims to attract all categories of customers. Men's and women's clothing are displayed in the window. The display in the store portrays a sense quality. The fashions

Answer 3 history questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Answer 3 history questions - Essay Example However, Lincoln’s tolerance in the matter was criticized by the Radical republicans who were of the absence of any Black civil rights in the Presidential Plan. After all the Blacks were emancipated after the Civil War, the Radicals were now demanding greater rights for them as equal Americans. Abraham Lincoln was the assassinated in 1865 after which President Andrew Johnson passed legislatures in the Southern states which limited the rights of Blacks to a set of codes. Hence, the period under the administration of President Johnson saw laws restricting Black rights and supporting the domination of the Whites (Public Broadcasting Service a, n.pag.). Along with support from President Johnson and his restrictive Black codes, the Southerners tried to maintain slavery in essence. Anger erupted in the North against the unfair black codes having a detrimental effect on the support for the Presidential Reconstruction. Support for the Radical wing of the Republicans increased and in t he next congressional election of 1866, the Radical republicans won. A massive majority of seats won by them allowed them to influence the Reconstruction in the Congress. Furthermore, it could supersede any refusals of permissions made by Johnson. In the Reconstruction Act passed in 1867, five Southern Confederate states were divided into military districts and gave a framework of how the government would be organized. Southern states were also prescribed to authorize the Fourteenth Amendment so as to allow equal rights and protection for the Black slaves before they were readmitted to the Union. Following the Reconstruction Act the Blacks acquired a say in the government regulations which was a remarkable step in the history of the American politics. Years later, however, counterrevolutionary players including the Ku Klux Klan would cause reversal of the legislations brought about by the Radical Republicans thereby spurring up hostility and white supremacy in the Southern States (P ublic Broadcasting Service a, n.pag.). The 1925 film The Birth of a Nation illustrated the same era of the Southern states after the American Civil War. The film distorted the reality of the Reconstruction period by showing the Blacks as dominating the Whites in the South thereby providing glorification of the Ku Klux Klan (Public Broadcasting Service b, n.pag.). 2. John Gast’s painting Manifest Destiny, also known as the American Progress, is a vivid presentation of the American West in the 19th century. The painting demonstrates the advancements in technology as the conventional travois used by Native Americans is followed by a wagon and then a pony express. Railroads can also be seen where the trains are travelling over the rails. With the construction of railroads after the American Civil War, the West was opened up for settlers across America as well as other continents. When seen sequentially, the painting demonstrates the American Progress as it is with the Native Amer icans coming in their travois before the European and American explorers came in their carriages and expresses. Then after them came the farmers and other settlers from other parts of the country via railroads in trains. White settlers arrived from the East crossing the Mississippi while the African American settlers came from the

Deficiency Disease Essay Example for Free

Deficiency Disease Essay Diseases that are caused by lack of some particular nutrient in a persons diet are called Deficiency Diseases. Following are some of those diseases, their cause and their treatment: 1. Night-blindness: A child having this disease is unable to see properly in the dark. His eyes become dull and listless and the skin becomes dry. If not treated in time, the child may become blind. Cause: This disease is caused due to the deficiency of vitamin A in the diet. Treatment: A child suffering from night-blindness should take a diet rich in vitamin A. Carrots, fish, fruits, milk, butter, etc., are all good sources of vitamin A. 2. Beri-beri: This is basically a disorder of the nerves. It affects the health of eyes % and skin, growth of the body, formation of muscles and blood. There may also to be stomach and intestinal disturbances. Cause: This disease is caused due to the deficiency of vitamin-B. Treatment: The affected child must eat the foods rich in vitamin B like milk, fish, meat, cereals, egg, etc., and also seek medical advice from a doctor. 3. Scurvy: People suffering from scurvy have swollen and bleeding gums. They lose weight and become weak. Their teeth start shaking and become loose. Cause: This disease is caused due to the deficiency of vitamin-C. Treatment: Oranges, citrus fruits, cabbage, amla, etc., should be included in the diet of the patient. 4. Rickets: In this disease, the bones of the legs become thin, deformed and curved (bow-legged). The bones of the child become weak and soft. Cause: This disease is caused due to the deficiency of vitamin D. Treatment: The affected child must eat the foods rich in vitamin D like milk, fish, meat, butter, egg, etc., and take the advice of a doctor. 5. Anaemia: In this disease, the level of the haemoglobin becomes low gets tired very easily and feels weak. The skin becomes pale. The lips and nails become dull and colourless. Cause: This disease is caused due to the deficiency of iron. Treatment: The person should have plenty of green, leafy vegetables like spinach and cabbage. Meat, apples, beans, dry fruits, etc., should be included in the diet. A doctor must also be consulted immediately. 6. Goitre: In this disease, there is swelling around the neck region of a person. Cause: This disease is caused due to the deficiency of iodine. Treatment: The affected person needs to add iodised salt to his or her food. Prevention: A high standard of nutrition must, however, be aimed at and carefully maintained to ensure complete freedom from these preventable causes of ill-health.

Analysis of the Organisation and Leadership of Unilever

Analysis of the Organisation and Leadership of Unilever 1- Introduction This report offers an analysis of the current organisational structure and management approach of the senior management team at Unilever, a multi-national organisation that produces and distributes many well-known consumer products. Recent years have seen the organisation undergo massive transformation, and they have reduced their workforce by some 41% over the last ten years (Unilever, 2010). They are dual-listed in the Netherlands and the UK, but operate as a single-entity with the same board and senior team. This structure offers them flexibility and adaptability across the globe, and also efficiency in production and distribution. It will draw on the theories of eminent scholars such as Taylor (1999) who proposed the theories of increased organisational efficiency by utilising an appropriate management structure, and also highlight how the internal structure of the organisation is influenced by external environment and organisational structure. This report will consider some of t he recent changes and challenges, which have faced Unilever, and provide and analysis of the likely future challenges facing the organisation. 2- Organisational History Unilever is one of the largest businesses in the world, with an annual turnover of nearly  £40 billion and in excess of 179,000 employees globally (Unilever, 2010). It was formed in 1930 as the amalgamation of the UK soap company Lever Brothers, and the Dutch margarine company Margarine Unie. The main driver for the merger was collaboration, as both companies relied heavily on palm oil as a major ingredient for their products and by sharing resources they were able to import and distribute to their factories far more cost effectively (Unilever, 2010). Indeed, palm oil remains a major ingredient for many products toady, and their continued commitment to sustainability and efficient distribution is one of Unilevers core corporate strategies (Dhillion, 2007). The growth of Unilever has been characterised by mergers and strategic acquisitions, not all of which have been friendly (Polsson, 2008), and their brand portfolio exceeds 400 and includes a wide range of consumer goods, ranging from foods and beverages to personal care products and cleaning products. They are listed on both the UK FTSE 100 and the Dutch equivalent the AXE, and they have 13 brands which generate revenue of over à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1 billion per year. The portfolio includes such well-known brand names as Walls, Ben and Jerrys, Dove, Lipton and Flora, and as can be seen from the few names mentioned, they are both diverse and equally powerful brands and market niches. They are also the largest ice-cream manufacturer in the world, controlling some 73% of the worlds ice cream production and generating revenue of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬5 billion per year alone from ice cream sales in Europe. Unilever have been able to make sales particularly profitable and efficient through centralisat ion of their brand under the heart logo, meaning that they were able to manufacture and distribute under the same brand across Europe with minimum customisation for local regions (Unilever, 2010). Unilever has also built strong links with its subsidiary businesses around the world for its teas and coffees, as much of the raw material required for food stuffs is sourced from African and Latin American countries, such as cocoa, vanilla, palm oil and coffee beans. To reach the size and level of diversity that they now control, Unilever have sought to acquire a further brand or manufacturing interest at the rate of approximately one per year for the last ten years. Such significant activity in terms of corporate diversity and consolidation makes for an interesting topic of study. (Full timeline of activities available in appendix 1). 3- Organisational Structure Considering the size and scope of the organisation it is understandable that they must operate within a defined framework, and as noted by Cummings and Worley (2005:136-138) the sheer size of the company can expose them to the risk of paralysis and stagnation as they are too large to respond flexibly to external challenges. Therefore Unilever have explicitly set out to create a management structure, which is capable of making faster decisions and responding more flexibly to external stimulus. Accordingly Unilever has created a four-tier hierarchical structure, which helps to funnel information into the business, and allows the senior team to make appropriate decisions based on available data (Unilever, 2010b). The structure of the executive team is set out in the diagram below:- Figure 1:- Corporate Structure of Unilever, adapted from Unilever (2010b) According to Unilever, they believe that this structure gives them suitable balance between corporate governance and organisational flexibility. Each level within the hierarchy serves a different function allowing the other levels of the organisation to concentrate on their core roles. Therefore the two executive directors; Paul Polman (Chief Executive Officer) and Jean-Marc Huà «t (Chief Financial Officer) serve as figureheads for the company. Their leadership styles and approaches will be discussed in more depth below. The ten non-executive directors serve as the independent element in Unilevers governance (Unilever, 2010a) and are drawn from a wide range of backgrounds all having huge experience and expertise in their respective areas. They are both internal and external to the organisation to help provide check and balance in their operational views and it is interesting to note that the board is very rare in having such a relatively high proportion of female NEDs at 30% (Black, 2003:236-238). The Unilever Executive (UEx) is responsible for managing profit and loss, and delivering growth across our regions, categories and functions (Unilever, 2010a). It comprises ten operational and executive directors all of whom have exceptional qualifications and experience in the fields of science, technology and business. Unilever has also taken care to ensure that the full cross-section of their multi-disciplinary functions and multi-national breadth are represented on the board, with several nationalities being represented. Finally, the three senior corporate officers are responsible for ensuring that the board of Unilever (both executive and non-executive) have all the necessary information to make prudent and timely corporate decisions on both an operational and strategic basis. The senior corporate officers are tasked with ensuring that the structure and framework of Unilever is returning suitable management information on which to base critical decisions (Unilever, 2010a). 4- Organisational Culture Organisational Culture has been defined as the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization, (Hill and Jones, 2001:27). This definition also helps us to understand the values of the organisation and how they seek to lead and develop their business. Organisational culture is complex, and can be influenced by a huge variety of factors as noted by Hofstede (1980) who identified the influenced and effects of multi-cultural workforces within multi-national environments. He proposed a theory of cultural dimensions which he used to help explain how multi-cultural influences act upon an organisation with regard to strategic application as discussed by De Wit and Meyer; Hofstedes (1993) theory of cultural dimensions implies that although not all the individuals within a countrys population will have exactly the same characteristics, the cultural dimensions will colour the institutional and administrative arrangements that are made within the country, and will set the norms for behaviour. Hofstede, G. (1993) Cultural constraints in management theories, in De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2004) Strategy Process, Content, Context, 3rd Edition, Thomson, London pp206. This is strongly evidenced at Unilever where the culture of the organisation is derived from its own multi-national background. This has influenced the process of strategic decision making at Unilever under the systemic approach advocated by Whittington in his work What is strategy and does it matter? (2000). Whittington proposed that organisations in the same circumstances as Unilever would do well to adopt what he described as a systemic approach. In this model the organisation should seek to create a hybrid of processual or delineated strategy on the basis of organisational objective, but that the approach should be tailored or tempered by a respect for cultural differences. Whittington observed that organisational culture is governed by the social structures created by management level, social class and interest groups, and that trying to cut across these groups in certain localised areas was likely to create excessive tension and achieve very little (Whittington, 2000:185-189). It is therefore interesting to observe the influence and effect of Paul Polman as the first external candidate to take the role the Chief Executive Officer. Paul is a Dutch national and has held the role since October 2008. His background and experience in the commercial goods and manufacturing sectors make him an ideal candidate for the role, as he is both financially astute and commercially aware. From the analysis of the company and its operating ethos and mission it can also be implied that his management style is European-influenced and therefore likely to be reflective of an inclusive culture and style in that it is both democratic and laissez-faire (Morgeson, 2005:497-508). Alternatively under the Tannenbaum and Schmidt continuum (1957) it can be suggested that Paul Polman allows freedom of his subordinates to pursue suitable corporate strategies on the basis of their capability and the application of democratic decision-making. Paul Polman succeeded Patrick Cescau as the Chief Executive Officer of Unilever. Patrick Cescau was the former CEO of Unilever and the first group CEO for the company. He is a French national with numerous accreditations to his name and an extremely successful history at Unilever. As reported in the Telegraph (2008), Unilever searched long and hard for a suitable successor to the position and eventually felt that Paul Polman would be a suitable candidate given his own background, capabilities and skills. This was a departure for the Anglo-Dutch company as they had never previously taken an external candidate for the position, preferring to recruit internally. Although Patrick Cescau formally stepped down from his role following his 60th birthday (the main reason for him to leave the post), he has continued to play an active role in corporate life and now serves as a non-executive director to another large multi-national firm. Patrick Cescau was known across the world for his work in regard to sustainability and business growth, and he has proved a hard act to follow (Insead, 2010). 5- Specific Issues It is useful to compare and contrast specific issues at Unilever and the various approaches which the board of directors have taken when addressing these situations, particularly with regard to the work of Patrick Cescau and his approach to corporate sustainability and social responsibility. Indeed he is quoted as having said that There is no dichotomy between doing business well and doing good; and, in fact, the two go hand in hand. (Insead, 2010). Thus, this element will consider some of the current issues facing Unilever and how they will seek to address them. 5.1- Approaches to Corporate Social Responsibility As noted on the corporate website (Unilever, 2010c), Unilever have a strong commitment corporate social responsibility and sustainability and they have adopted a specific and targeted set of measures and key performance indicators to benchmark their own sustainability performance. It is recognised by scholars such as Atkinson et al (2007:66-68) that there is currently no uniform approach to sustainability or any codified measures of best operational practice. This is despite increasingly stringent legislation which seeks to set out minimum performance standards and has been applied on very few occasions save for flagrant breaches which have resulted in catastrophic consequences (Constanza et al, 2007:203-210). Unilever state that their approaches to Corporate Social Responsibility incorporate business benefits as well as ethical principles (Unilever, 2010c). By this they mean that they have continued the work started by Patrick Cescau seeking to align business activity and ethical ac tivity. They have chosen to apply sustainable principles to as many areas of possible in their business on the simple premise that sustainability makes good business sense. Therefore they have engaged some of the most innovative principles in research and development, agriculture, packaging and manufacturing as they believe that sustainability helps [them] win (Unilever, 2010c). The Unilever website offers several examples of successful case studies where sustainability has proved to be of great business benefit amongst both internal and external stakeholders, and the board of Unilever also recognise that this can only be achieve by impeccable business performance and adherence to best principles in their own right. 5.2- Reputation Management and Diversity Contrastingly it is also useful to consider some of the more controversial activities, which have been undertaken by Unilever in their recent history. Unilever have been accused of causing deforestation by campaigners such as Greenpeace because of the use of palm oil, a major ingredient in many products. In consequence Unilever have committed to sourcing all of their palm oil requirements sustainably by 2015 (Unilever, 2010d). This principle has also been applied with regard to their requirements for tea leaves for their Lipton and PG Tips brands (Unilever, 2010c). Unilever recognise that because of their level of consumption of these raw materials and their need to invest in sustainable practices they will need to work closely with bodies such as the Rainforest Alliance to form synergies, which are beneficial to all stakeholders. However Unilever have a strong commitment to positive diversity as evidenced by their localised products and marketing campaigns, which are specifically aimed to meet the needs of consumers at a localised level. This includes specific beauty products for various nations in response to consumer demand. Examples of such positive diversity can be found in Indian advertising for skin creams (Telegraph, 2007). Although there was some adverse reaction to the advertisement it is also recognised that the product met a considerable demand in India and there was also some evident confusion at a localised level as to why the product might not be required. When compared to the Dove brand real beauty campaign which Unilever have managed since 2007 (Dove, 2010) it can be seen that there is a strong demand for localised product management and positive diversity, which Unilever have responded to. This has helped their own reputational and brand management and has enabled them to react rapidly to con sumer demand, which has served to strengthen their corporate and market position. 6- Management and Leadership Approaches at Unilever Netherlands There are several theories, which can be used to help understand the relationship between managers and employees within an organisation. This element of the report will consider three of the main theories put forward by leading academics in the subject, via Taylor (1999) Maslow (1992) and Fayol (1999). Each of these theories addresses a different aspect of the employee management relationship as will be discussed. 6.1- Taylor and Scientific Management Taylor (1999 cited in Matteson and Ivancevich), identified that to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness within an organisation it is necessary to synthesize workflows (1999:12-15) to ensure that there is alignment between resource availability and organisational requirements. Taylor suggested that by measuring and monitoring these objectives and setting out clear processes and procedures for employees to follow, it is possible to significantly increase labour productivity and effectiveness. The cornerstone of Taylors theory was centred on adhering to best practice processes to minimise waste and maximise productivity. Taylors theories were developed whilst observing car production plants, and there are close analogies with regard to the production flows of manufacturing in the Unilever plants. As each of the manufacturing plants owned and operated by Unilever produces products and foodstuff, which their consumers will either ingest or use for personal care, the manufacturing must be of the highest standards and quality, with rigorous safety and quality checks at every stage of the process. Unilever have therefore developed and implemented a robust series of controls, which enables them to manage and monitor every part of the production process, and also standardise it across their estate. Such is the level of control exerted by Unilever, that in theory it should be possible to take an employee from a UK manufacturing site and exchange them for an employee from a Dutch manufacturing site, and they should each be capable of performing the necessary roles and functions (Unilever, 2010). Critics of Ta ylors approach such as Daft et al (2010:26), argue that the forced level of direction engendered by the Taylorist approach de-skills and de-motivates employees who effectively become machines who are dehumanised. This is a particularly so on production line, as there is a requirement for absolute conformity as opposed to creativity and individualism. It is a perpetual challenge for Unilever to maintain the interest and enthusiasm of employees who perform repetitive jobs such as those that will be required for a significant proportion of the Unilever workforce. This is something, which was acknowledged and addressed by Maslow (1999, cited in Strage), who noted that employees require more than simple fiscal reward to remain motivated. This has been noted and observed by the management team at Unilever, and when their management approach and corporate culture is applied to the Tannenbaum and Schmidt continuum, as cited in Matteson and Ivancevich, (1999), it can be seen that although so me level of authority must be applied to ensure consistency of process, many of the Unilever employees have a far greater level of freedom and creativity to offer innovative suggestions for product and process improvement. 6.2- Maslow and the Hierarchy of Needs In contrast to Taylor, the Maslow school of thought discusses tools and techniques to help managers to motivate and empower employees to perform to the best of their ability. Maslow (1999, cited in Strage) discusses the hierarchy of needs model, whereby he identified that it was not simply money that motivated employees to work, but many other factors contributed to the desire of employees to perform to the best of their ability. The diagram below outlines what Maslow has identified, in that as each level of need is satisfied, the individual moves up the pyramid to satisfy the next need in the ranking. Figure 1: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1999). As Maslows theory suggests, once the basic needs of financial reward for work have been satisfied sufficient to meet the demands of paying bills, then an employee looks for other motivations to come to work, such as feeling valued by their employer, and having their work and achievements recognised. It would seem given that there have been no recent publicised disputes between employees and leaders at Unilever that employees are satisfied with the both the pay and recognition which they receive from the management team. As Maslow noted, once the basic needs have been satisfied, the need to be accepted and to belong is a powerful human motivator. This is closely linked with reward and recognition for work that has been done well or is particularly innovative. Some theorists such as Hackman and Wageman (2005:269) refer to this as celebrating success. They suggest that if major achievements which have been made possible by the co-operative work of the team are celebrated and recognised, this will go on to motivate and encourage employees to continue to perform. Unilever have recently won awards for innovation and environmental achievement (Unilever, 2010), which they were keen to share with the rest of the business, as the entire firm will benefit from such a positive approach (Morden, 1996; McGovern et al, 2008). 6.3- Fayol A third perspective on matters of management and leadership approach is that put forward by Fayol (1999 cited in Matteson and Ivancevich), who similarly to Taylor subscribed to a scientific theory of management. He proposed a general theory of management, suggesting that managers had six primary functions and fourteen further principles of management. In contrast to Taylor, Fayol proposed a far more interactive approach to management techniques, which suggested that process controls were in fact best designed by those people who performed the work every day (ie, the workforce). Fayol argued that if management interacted closely with the workforce and understood their needs and concerns, they would be far better placed to gather feedback about systems and processes and make the necessary efficiency changes. It would seem from the success and growth of Unilever as a multi-national conglomerate that they have been particularly successful and following these principles and instilling a c ollaborative approach which harnesses the power and knowledge of the workforce and uses it to further the growth and development of the business (Fayol, ibid). Examples of this include working with employees to indentify and implement efficiency savings, and also generating a culture of continuous improvement, which builds a self-perpetuating cycle of success (Judge et al, 2002:770-775). When considering these findings in the light of the Blake and Moulton Leadership grid (1964), it can clearly be seen that the leaders at Unilever are at the inclusive and collaborative point on the scale as termed the sound style (previously known as tem style). At this point they have equal concern for both production and people as they recognise that to deliver consistently excellent products they must have committed and motivated employees. According to Blake and Moulton (ibid), this leadership style relies on managers recognising that employees must feel as if they are a highly valued part of the organisation, a theory that is closely aligned with that of Maslow who observed that those employees who produced the best work felt that they were suitably rewarded for their efforts. Moreover, as increasing numbers of organisations recognise the benefits of adopting a collaborative and co-operative approach to achieving organisational excellence, current management theory would indicat e that the days of dictatorial mangers are on the decline (Den Hartog and Koopman cited in Anderson et al, 2002:166-168). This also seems particularly likely given the increasing legislation to prevent employers from bullying their employees and behaving in an inappropriate manner (Miner, 2009). Application of the Hersey and Blanchards situational theory model (1999, cited in Gabriel et al, 1999) further underlines that the Unilever management style is one of participating and delegating as opposed to telling employees what to do. Unilever is characterised by open channels of communication, and there are points which against the Hersey and Blanchard model the leadership style could be regarded as selling, this is more to do with the differing levels of maturity in various parts of the business, and particularly in those parts which have been recently acquired. It is interesting to set the Hersey and Blanchard model against the backdrop of situational leadership, as it seems that the characteristics of Unilever are a mature and confident group of leaders who are happy to delegate tasks and responsibility, and thus leverage the best from their employees (Den Hartog and Koopman, ibid). Remembering that the board of Unilever has been secure and stable for some time, it is of lit tle surprise that they are able to adopt and react flexibly to change. Moreover, their considerable experience of acquisition allows them to rapidly assimilate and absorb new businesses into the estate, and embraces the culture changes, which must necessarily follow (Simons and Billing, 1995; Spillane, 2004). Despite the size of Unilever, it is remarkable that they are able to adapt so readily to change at both an internal and external level, and across global boundaries. In some ways their sheer size has enabled them to cushion themselves from some of the worst effects of the recession, coupled with the fact that their diverse portfolio requires them to be adaptive and flexible to consumer trends a style which is reflected in both their culture and leadership. 7- Recommendations to Enhance Management Practices As can be seen from the preceding discussions, the senior management team at Unilever have faced some serious internal and external challenges, both at a local level and a global level. Some of these challenges are outside of their control, however in order to ensure that they remain one of the leading conglomerates in the world they must adapt and respond flexibly to both internal and external challenges. This section of the report considers some recommendations to continue to improve employee motivation and engagement by enhancing and improving management practices, and also offer suggestions based on relevant theory as to how the necessary changes can be embedded. 7.1- Recommendations for Strategic Change and Effective Management Practices Although there are few current difficulties with employee relationships, it is apparent that some significant changes still need to be made in order to secure the future of Unilever in the current turbulent economic environment. Whilst they are far from bankruptcy, recent years have seen considerable expenditure and challenge for Unilever, which has centred on the considerable number if divestments and acquisitions in order to strengthen and consolidate their global brand portfolio (Morden, 1996:458-496). The theories of Taylor, Maslow and Fayol all offer suggestions as to how to engage with employees in times of significant change and challenge. Application of the Tannenbaum and Schmidt continuum (cited in Matteson and Ivancevich, 1999) indicates that the collaborative style of leadership has helped Unilever in managing and instilling change, and it is clear that under modern management practices that for them to continue to be successful they must continue to engage and motivate em ployees, especially those who are new to the culture of Unilever and have joined them through acquisition (Hassard and Parker, 1993:43-45). Furthermore, Gergen (1995) concurs with Hassard and Parker (ibid), in those organisations, which operate in a post-modernist world, should take care to adopt appropriate management styles and techniques, or get left behind their competitors in a rapidly changing world. Taking all of these factors into consideration, and with reference to all of the theories which have been discussed and applied, it is apparent that there is a self-perpetuating cycle and culture of success which is supporting the leaders at Unilever to behave in a manner which is highly likely to assist them in developing a robust business which is fit to operate in current times. The collaborative and communicative style of the leaders should be upheld and gently moulded in newer acquisitions to one which is collaborative and co-operative in approach, drawing on the theories of Maslow to help motivate and engage employees in such a way that they provide constructive criticism and feedback on how best to help Unilever develop in the current challenging environment. Whilst it is appreciated that management culture and organisational culture is not something that can be changed overnight, as reliance on technology increases and organisations must become more adaptable to survive, it i s likely that the current culture will be fit to see Unilever through into the future. References Atkinson, G., Dietz, S. Neumayer, E. (2007). Handbook of Sustainable Development. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. BBC News. 22 May 2010 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8633455.stm. Retrieved 18th Nov 2010 Blake, R.; Mouton, J. (1964). The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. Black, Richard J. (2003) Organizational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success, London UK. Cohan, William D., (2009) House of Cards: A Tale of Hubris and Wretched Excess on Wall Street, [a novel]. New York, Doubleday. Costanza, R., Graumlich, L.J. Steffen, W. (eds), (2007). Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and Future of People on Earth. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press. Cummings, Thomas G. Worley, Christopher G. (2005), Organization Development and Change, 8th Ed., Thomson South-Western, USA Copenhagen Climate Change (2009) http://www.copenhagenclimatecouncil.com/about-us/councillors.html (retrieved 5th Nov, 2010). Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman, P. L. (2002). Leadership in organizations. In N. Anderson, D. S. Ones, H. K. Sinangil C. Viswesvaran (Eds.), Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 2: Organizational psychology. (pp.  166-187): Sage Publications, Inc. DfT (2010) Road Freight drops 24% in first quarter of 2010 available online at http://www.aricia.ltd.uk/articles.aspx. (retrieved 5th Nov, 2010). Dhillon, Amrit (2007-07-01). Indias hue and cry over paler skin. The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/07/01/wskin101.xml. Retrieved 9th Nov 2010. Dove (2010) Campaign for Real Beauty available online at http://www.dove.us/#/cfrb/ retrieved 13th Dec 2010 Fayol, H. (1999) Planning in M.T. Matteson and J.M. Ivancevich (eds), Management and Organisational Behaviour Classics. 7th ed., London: Irwin, McGraw-Hill, pp.12-15. Gabriel, Y. Fineman, S. Sims, D. (2000) Organizing and Organisations. 2nd Ed. London, Sage. Gergen, K.J. (1995) The Limits of Pure Critique in H.W. Simons, H.W. and Billig, M. (1995) After Postmodernism: Reconstructing Ideology Critique. London, Sage. Greenpeace (2007) Unilever admits toxic dumping: will clean up but not come clean http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/contentlookup.cfm?CFID=6864301CFTOKEN=96874361ucidparam=20010620124942MenuPoint=G-A.Retrieved 9th Nov 2010 Hackman, J. R., Wageman, R. (2005). A Theory of Team Coaching. Academy of Management Review, 30(2), 269-287 Hill, C and Jones, G (2001) Strategic Management. Houghton Mifflin pp 27 Hofstede, G. (1980) Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Beverly Hills, CA, Sage Publications Indian Resource Centre (14th May 2003) Monsanto, Unilever use of Child Labour in India http://www.indiaresource.org/issues/agbiotech/2003/monsantounilever.html retrieved 18th Nov 2010 Insead (2010) Top 50 Alumni Who Changed the World available online at http://50.insead.edu/alumni/patrick-cescau retrieved 13th Dec 2010 Maslow, A.H. (1992) A Theory of Human Motivation, Chapter 10 in Henry M. Strage,1992, Milestones in Management: An Essential Reader. Oxford, Blackwell Business. Miner, J. B. (2009). Organizational Behavior: Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership. Armonk: M.

Teaching maths

Teaching maths Introduction Mathematics is an essential part of our world and an important life skill. In our society today, we are bombarded by numberous data that requires us to record, sort and organize. We need to use mathematics not only at our work places, but also in our everyday life. Even simple daily tasks like making a purchase or financial recording at home needs mathematical skill. By having a strong understanding of mathematics, it will open doors to a promising career and a productive future (The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2004). Early childhood education sets the foundation upon which future learning is built. Before children enter school, many of them develop number and geometric abilities like counting objects and making shapes (Clements, 2001). Children develop informal mathematical knowledge that is complex and sometimes sophisticated (Clements, 2001). During preschool years, children’s brains undergo significant development as their learning and experience affect th eir brain structure. Their brains grow most as a result of complex activities and not just from simple tasks. Preschoolers are a special group and therefore, it is important to have developmentally appropriate activities for them (Clements, 2001). In order to help children with mathematics, teachers need to first understand how they learn mathematics. It is also crucial to find out the difficulties they may face during the learning process so that Teachers can use appropriate methods to help them. How children learn mathematics and their concept development At a very early age, children start to demonstrate their knowledge of mathematics. Children are curious about their world and this leads them to explore the concept of mathematics (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). In the ordinary environment, they experience everyday mathematics involving topics like space, shape, pattern, number and number operations (Ginsburg, Lee Boyd, n.d.) . Children’s play and interest are the sources of their first mathematical experiences (Clements, 2001). They need different kinds of concrete materials to manipulate and the time to play in order to construct mathematical concepts (Smith, 1997). For instance, when playing with blocks, children spend a lot of time figuring out which block is higher than the other. The blocks also help the children to further explore mathematical concepts such as shapes and symmetries (Ginsburg et al., n.d.) . As children manipulate materials, their action forces some thinking and reaction. Materials allow children with a wide range of interests and abilities to enjoy success (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). Interaction with others is another way that children learn mathematics. Through interaction with other children, they are able to question their own view of the world and adjust accordingly. Mathematical group project is an example that provides opportunities for social interaction and can be a strategy for mathematics learning. During project work, children can share different ideas, discuss approach and argue about their suggestions. Children talk and listen to each other when playing and working. They naturally talk about what they are doing. Use of the language is essential to learning about mathematical ideas and procedures (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). Besides interacting with others, language also helps children in learning mathematics because it aids in organizing their thinking and experiences. Children are able to learn new concepts better when they have the ability to describe mathematical ideas an d relationships (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). The theory of Piaget and Vygotsky gives teachers information about children’s course of mathematical concept development and aid in developmentally appropriate teaching. Piaget proposed a four-stage theory of cognitive development (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). From zero to two years old, it is called the sensorimotor period. Mathematical concepts are believed to develop as children grasp, touch or move objects of different sizes and shapes. Classification skills are also believed to develop during this period of time. Preoperational stage is from two to seven or eight years old. During this period, children learn about conservation concept and they develop the understanding that objects remain the same no matter how they are changed in form or arranged in different ways. They acquire language rapidly and are able to use symbols to represent real objects. Concrete operations period is from seven to eleven or twelve years old. As they think, they still need to handle and manipulate objects. However, they start to become more independent from the manipulation of objects. They can think about classes, seriation and numbers (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). Vygotsky’s theory consists of natural and cultural development (Smith, 1997). Natural development influences learning. Cultural development occurs when children interact with others and language is improved through interaction. He believed that when children are in their â€Å"zone of proximal development†, learning takes place. With the help of teachers and peers, they can achieve certain tasks. He also believed that in early learning scaffolding is essential to grasp a task. Later on, the support is slowly reduced in order for the children to master the skill independently (Smith, 1997). Role of teachers in helping children learn mathematics Teachers play an important role in helping children learn mathematics. First of all, the teacher should plan the learning environment in such a way that it is beneficial to mathematical explorations. For example, the classroom should contain a variety of objects related to numbers and concrete materials like blocks and manipulatives (Clements, 2001). Classrooms can also be numbered (Barbour Seefeldt, 2000). This will help the children learn mathematical concepts through their play. During their play, teachers must observe and intervene when necessary to create teachable moments. But when should teachers intervene? A useful way is to observe whether mathematical thinking is developing or already installed in children. If the thinking is developing, the teacher can take notes and discuss about the experience after they finished playing. On the other hand, if the thinking is installed, the teacher can discuss and clarify the ideas with the children. In this way, the children can clarif y their thinking and extend the idea (Clements, 2001). Teachers can work with the children on group projects so that they can be involved in different mathematical ideas like measurements, numbers, space and so on (Ginsburg et al., n.d.). Developmentally appropriate curriculum is an essential part of developing mathematical knowledge. A curriculum offers planned activities and assumes that mathematics does not need to be always integrated with other activities, but it can also be an interesting subject on its own (Ginsburg et al., n.d.). It strengthens children’s geometric and number knowledge (Clements, 2001). Some children may have difficulty in learning mathematics and it is the teachers’ role to help them cope with the problem. Some children have math anxiety and it has a negative influence on the children’s academic performance (Mazzocco, 2007). Others may have inability to estimate quantity (ScienceDaily, 2013) and spatial difficulty (Mazzocco, 2007). In order to help these children in mathematics, teachers can use different methods to improve the learning experiences. For instance, in order to help children with math anxiety, teachers can enhance the basic numerical and spatial processing. This can be done both in school as well as collaboration with parents. Research shows that the quality of numerical and spatial talk by parents is related to the children’s math and spatial skills. Hence, the parents can engage the children in daily activities that are related to math. This will help the children to have more basic knowledge of mathematics when they come to sch ool and reduce the anxiety in them (Beilock Willingham, 2014). Small group learning is another strategy that the teachers can use to help those children that has difficulties. Small group is where teachers plan the materials and lessons based on the children’s interest and their level of development. Teachers can scaffold each child’s learning. As children gain confidence in their abilities, they are more willing to take up new challenges. Small group also allows teachers to observe each child in the group through daily interactions and understand more about their abilities and interests (HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 2011). Integrated curriculum is another approach to enhance the children’s learning in mathematics. It emphasizes the holistic development of the child- physical, social, emotional, intellectual and aesthetic development. Stories are a great teaching resource and when used effectively, can promote thinking and new knowledge. For examp le, the story book â€Å"Pancakes, Pancakes† can be used as a resource for integrated curriculum. Through storytelling and the use of learning centres and group settings strategy, language, math and cooking are learned (Velu, 2012). Case study Child’s profile Name: Jason Age: 6 years old Gender: Male Race: Chinese Preschool: Little kids kindergarten Skills: Able to count one to ten. Able to sort, match and compare by one attribute (example size, shape and colour). Able to recognize basic shapes. Family background: Both parents are busy with work and have little time for him. He has two siblings so the parents cannot give him full attention. Parents do not communicate with him often and they often use television to keep him occupied. Siblings: two Parents: Both parents working Spoken language: English Activities other than school: Watch Television and play online kids’ games Problems he face in mathematics This child faces some difficulties in mathematics. He is not able to do more advanced pattern like AAB pattern. During class he has difficulty in number bond and he isn’t able to finish his numeracy activities in class. The teacher has been trying to do one-to-one teaching such as helping him to be more familiar with pattern by re-introducing AB pattern using paper and stamp. The teacher also helps him in number bond by pairing him up with another child. However, there is little improvement and the child continues to have difficulties in mathematics. In order to help this child to improve, lessons can be conducted for both pattern and number bond. Both teacher and parents should collaborate to help Jason to improve. Lessons to help him with pattern and number bond Lessons for pattern: The activity is call people patterns (Big Ideas of Early Mathematics, 2014). This is a visual pattern activity and the material is the children in the class. It is a simple pattern activity to help Jason to understand the basic pattern from the environment. The teacher arranges the children in AB pattern: stand, sit; stand, sit; stand, sit. After that, the teacher can ask the children to describe the pattern. Lastly, the teacher ask questions like â€Å"what is the pattern† and â€Å"what is its rule?†. Each child takes turn to give the answer (Big Ideas of Early Mathematics, 2014). If Jason is not sure, the teacher can explain to him immediately. At the same time, Jason’s parents can also help Jason to reinforce his pattern knowledge at home. They can carry out activities like shape pattern. His parents can use concrete materials like plain wooden blocks of different shapes to teach him the AB pattern. For instance, three square and three triangle blocks can be used. Then the parents can set the pattern: square, triangle; square, triangle; square, triangle. They can ask Jason to describe the pattern and after that ask him to demonstrate the same pattern. Once Jason is more confident with the AB pattern, the teacher and parents can use the same materials and methods to introduce AAB pattern. Instead of using paper and stamp for AAB pattern activity, the teacher can try to use concrete material. After Jason has a better understanding of AAB pattern, the teacher can replace concrete materials with paper and stamp. Lessons for number bond: The first activity for the number bond can be done at home. Jason’s parents can use material such as raisins to carry out the activity. For example, they can ask him how many raisins are in his hand. He is then allowed to eat some of the raisins. After that, ask him to count again. If he gets the correct answer, he is allowed to eat all the raisins. After Jason is able to understand the number operations at home, he can go on to the number bond lesson in class. Concrete materials like small dinosaur models can be used together with the number bond worksheet. The dinosaurs can assist Jason to see the numbers using real objects. For instance, if the numbers are three and seven, the teacher can give Jason three dinosaurs first and ask him to count. Another seven dinosaurs can be given to him. After that ask him to count the total number of dinosaurs and he can write the answer on the worksheet. This activity can use different combination of numbers and is a good way to help Jason to understand the number bond concept better. Conclusion References Beilock, S., Willingham, D. (2014). Math Anxiety: Can Teachers Help Students Reduce It?. American Educator. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/beilock.pdf Barbour, N., Seefeldt, C. (2000). Early Childhood Education-An Introduction (4th ed., pp. 449-462). New York: Macmillan College Publishing. Big Ideas of Early Mathematics. (2014) (p. 91). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Ginsburg, H., Lee, J., Boyd, J. Mathematics Education for Young Children: What It Is and How to Promote It. Social Policy Report. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/21-3_early_childhood_education.pdf HighScope Educational Research Foundation,. (2011). Scaffolding Children’s Learning at Small-Group Time. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://www.highscope.org/file/Trainer%20Page/Preschool/1%20Day%20Workshops/W2006_11-Scaffolding%20SGT%20Booklet%20%239_press.pdf Mazzocco, M. (2007). Early Predictors of Mathematical Learning Difficulties: Variations In Childrens Difficulties With Math. Exchange. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://msdp.kennedykrieger.org/pdf/42.pdf ScienceDaily,. (2013). Preschoolers inability to estimate quantity relates to later math difficulty. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/08/130814132508.htm Smith, S. (1997). Early Childhood Mathematics (pp. 1-18). Boston: Allyn Bacon. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,. (2001). Mathematics in the Preschool. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://gse.buffalo.edu/org/buildingblocks/writings/preschool%20math%20in%20tcm.pdf The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,. (2004). A Familys Guide: Fostering Your Childs Success in School Mathematics. Retrieved 10 November 2014, from http://illuminations.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Activities_Home/FamilyGuide_FullText.pdf Velu, G. (2012). Intergrating Language, Math and Cooking Through Storytelling. Early Educators.

Zora Neale Hurstons They Eyes Were Watching God Essay -- Hurston Eyes

Zora Neale Hurston's They Eyes Were Watching God It’s no wonder that â€Å"[t]he hurricane scene in Zora Neale Hurston’s novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, is a famous one and [that] other writers have used it in an effort to signify on Hurston† (Mills, â€Å"Hurston†). The final, climactic portion of this scene acts as the central metaphor of the novel and illustrates the pivotal interactions that Janie, the protagonist, has with her Nanny and each of her three husbands. In each relationship, Janie tries to â€Å"’go tuh God, and†¦find out about livin’ fuh [herself]’† (192). She does this by approaching each surrogate parental figure as one would go to God, the Father; she offers her faith and obedience to them and receives their definitions of love and protection in return. When they threaten to annihilate and hush her with these definitions, however, she uses her voice and fights to save her dream and her life. Hurston shows how Janie’s parental figures t ransform into metaphorical hurricanes, how a literal hurricane transforms into a metaphorical representation of Janie’s parental figures, and how Janie survives all five hurricanes. Janie’s first parental, godlike figure is Nanny, and she is the first to assume the form of a metaphorical hurricane or â€Å"[s]omething resembling a hurricane in force or speed† (â€Å"Hurricane†). Nanny establishes her parental, godlike status to Janie when she says, â€Å"’You ain’t got no papa, you might jus’ as well say no mama, for de good she do yuh. You ain’t got nobody but me†¦Neither can you stand alone by yo’self’† (15). While acting as the sole provider of love and protection to Janie, Nanny assumes the speed and force of a hurricane; â€Å"she bolt[s] upright† upon witnessing Janie’s first kiss an... ...er, she uses her voice and fights to save her dream and her life. Because the hurricane scene serves as the central metaphor of Hurston’s novel, it’s not surprising that other writers would want to use the hurricane to signify on Hurston. What may surprise these other writers, however, is that the novel actually includes five hurricane scenes, not just one. Works Cited â€Å"Fill.† The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 2000 Fourth ed. Bartleby.com. 13 Nov. 2004 . Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York: Perennial, (1937) 1965. â€Å"Hurricane.† The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 2000 Fourth ed. Bartleby.com. 13 Nov. 2004 . Mills, Elizabeth. â€Å"Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God.† Eighteenth Class Meeting. English 281. Davidson College. 26 Oct. 2004.

Understanding HIV and AIDS :: health, virus, medicine

HIV/ AIDS HIV/AIDS is an epidemic that effects both men and women of all ages. It has an impact on many people's lives either by themselves being infected, knowing someone who is infected, or being a health care worker. HIV is a virus that attacks the body's immune system. It also effects the blood cells (lymphocytes) and cells of the organs (bone marrow, spleen, liver, and lymph glands). It effects the lungs, central nervous system and gastrointestinal system. People begin with having the HIV virus. An HIV infected person is likely to stay fit and well for a long time. In time, however the infected person develops rare illnesses or cancers because their immune system is weakened. When this happens, the person now has AIDS. Some people live for several years once they have AIDS, but it is always fatal. HIV is diagnosed with a blood test known as an HIV antibody test or HIV test. If the test shows that HIV is present, the person is referred to as HIV positive. It may take up to 6 months after contact to show up. The number of women with HIV and AIDS in the United States is steadily rising. From 1985 to 1996, the proportion of reported US AIDS cases occurring among women increased from 7-20% (Women and AIDS). An analysis from the National Cancer Institute estimates that between 107,000 and 150,000 women on the U.S. are living with HIV infection (many of whom have not developed AIDS (Women and AIDS) AIDS presents a great worry for women. It is the third leading cause of death among women ages 25 to 44 and the leading cause of death among African-American women of the same age group. (Women and AIDS) Although AIDS cases are reported in all 50 states, the highest rates in 1996 were in New York, New Jersey, Florida, Maryland and Delaware (Women and AIDS) HIV may not produce any initial symptoms. However, as this disease progresses, symptoms begin to appear. Among them are: fatigue, unexplained weight loss, night sweats, fever, diarrhea, recurrent respiratory and skin infections, swollen lymph glands throughout the body, genital changes, enlarged spleen and mouth sores. Vaginal yeast infections, common and easily treated in most women, are harder to treat in HIV infected women. Bacterial vaginosis and common STDs such as gonorrhea, chlamydia trichomoniasis, and pelvic inflammatory disease are more common and aggressive in HIV-infected women.

personal :: essays research papers

Depression is a chronic mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and irritability. Many people do not realized that depression is a disease, it’s a real medical disorder where changes occur in the brain, and they have medicine that helps correct these imbalances. Depression has been described as a â€Å"whole-body illness† because it doesn’t only affect the person’s mood but can affect every aspect of a person’s life. Depression is an illness, not a state of mind or a weakness. Depression is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain, but there are also other factors that may play a role as well, such as: environment - a significant loss, a difficult relationship or financial problems all produce stress. The body, by secreting extra amounts of certain hormones persisting for a long time, can produce changes in the brain actually killing some of the nerve cells. psychological - peoples whose personalities involve pessimistic thinking, low self-esteem and excessive worrying are more likely to develop depression. Genetics could also play a part - parents, siblings and children of depressed people are four times more likely to get depressed than a non-relative. Depression can affect anyone, any age. Even infants can become depressed, and may even die when they receive only a limited amount of human contact. Out of the estimated 17.6 million Americans suffering from depression each year, 1.5 million are children under eighteen. In teens depression is sometimes masked, shown in different ways like drugs, alcohol use, trouble in school, at home or with the law, withdrawal from social activities and sulkiness, grouchiness, and over-sensitivity. Sadness may be shown by wearing black clothes, writing poetry with morbid themes or music with nihilistic themes. Sleep disturbances may be shown by watching television all night, difficulty in getting up for school, or sleeping during the day. Lack of motivation and lowered energy level is reflected by missed classes. Getting lower grades than usual can show loss of concentration and slowed thinking. Boredom could also be a sign of depression in teens, loss of appetite may become anorexia or bulimia. Depression can appear to come out of nowhere, or it can be triggered by a life event such as the death of ones mother or the divorce of ones parents. According to the American Psychiatric Association, someone is depressed when loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities, or feelings of sadness last without relief for at least two weeks.

Are Crises Threatening the Benefits?

Are crises threatening the benefits from international portfolio diversification? This essay examines whether rising international stock market correlations during market crises are weakening the efficacy of modern portfolio theory, which promises benefits from international portfolio diversification. The importance of the combining assets that are not perfectly correlated is discussed, as are reasons why we might expect markets to move more closely during crises. If it is clear that markets are moving more closely together during crises, investors are losing diversification benefits at the most critical time.However, because of assumptions, it is apparent that there is considerable debate over the validity of the correlation coefficient for use in explaining the co-movement of market returns. It may be that markets are moving closely together at all times. Also, over the long run, short term rises in correlations may have negligible effects for the investor. For these reasons, we ca nnot discredit the worth of international portfolio diversification. The correlation coefficient is a key statistic for devising the optimal portfolio.In accordance to Modern Portfolio Theory, where risk is to be minimized for a given level of return, the correct combination of assets relies critically on the correlation between those assets. When defining the risk of a portfolio as its standard deviation, when assets that are less that perfectly correlated are combined, the standard deviation of the portfolio is actually less that the weighted average of each individual asset’s standard deviation, although the expected return from a portfolio is simply the weighted average of the expected return of each individual asset (Bodie, Kane, Marcus, Perrakis, &Ryan, 2008, p. 08). This is why combining assets with correlations of less than one (proper diversification) is referred to as a ‘free lunch. ’ It is also apparent that this principle also extends to international portfolio diversification, where market returns are less that perfectly correlated. From examining the correlation data from Table 2, the financial crisis of the late 2000’s seems to be yet another example of international stock market correlations rising during bear markets.The selective correlations of the UK’s FTSE 100 Index, Japan’s Nikkei 225 Average, and Brazil’s Bovespa Index to the S&P 500 come from simple fifteen year data series’ on monthly index returns. All correlations were higher from 2008 to March 2009 (the substance of the S&P 500’s decline during the financial crisis) relative to correlations for the entire sample period, and even higher relative to correlations for the bull run of 2003-2008. This correlation behaviour may create misgivings for an investor who values his ‘free lunch,’ and raises the questions: do markets move more closely during crises and why ?When using the correlation coefficient to measure the comovement of market returns, we are making assumptions about the underlying data (stock market returns. ) An important assumption is that the underlying data follow a normal distribution. A study by Campbell, Forbes, Koedijk, and Kofman (2007) examined annualized mean return data for five stock indices from 1990-2005 and found that each data set failed to conform to normality, by displaying significant skewness and kurtosis.They also test conditional correlation estimators under normality and under the student-t distribution, and find that â€Å"earlier studies may have overestimated the excess in conditional correlation by assuming bivariate normality,† and that under the student-t distribution excess conditional correlation ceases for the left tail (bear markets) of returns (para. 4). Furthermore, Forbes and Rigobon (2002) assert that the correlation coefficient is further biased as an estimator of market comovement because of the heteroskedasticity of market return da ta (volatility changes), while the correlation coefficient assumes homoskedasticity.They conclude that increases in volatility during crises result in an upward bias in correlation coefficients during those periods. After adjusting for this bias, they find that there is no statistically significant increase in market correlations during crises. They do find that markets comove strongly at all times, which they call â€Å"interdependence†(p. 2250). It is important to note that Forbes and Rigobon’s result is not uncontested, and that they also employed their own set of assumptions, and when violated, â€Å"correlation coefficients are not always biased measures of dependence when markets become more olatile†(Bartram and Wang, 2005, para. 1). This illustrates the academic uncertainty of dismissing or accepting correlation coefficients as an effective measure of market co movement. It is because of the uncertainty in the literature, and the inherent assumptions of t he correlation coefficient, that we cannot strictly conclude, by examining stock market return correlations, that markets move more closely together during crises.In a study of the comovement of stock market returns during the aforementioned financial crisis, Didier, Love, Soledad, and Peria (2011) provide some insights into why shocks may transmit and manifest in different stock exchanges. They test three possible drivers of market comovement: real linkages through trade; financial linkages, both direct and indirect, including the actions of international investors with respect to margin calls, risk aversion, and herding; and ‘demonstration effects’, where investors give new attention to risks that have materialized, and then update valuations.From their empirical tests, they find that financial variables played the largest role in transmission during the financial crisis of the late 2000’s, while ‘demonstration effects’ also contributed to increase d comovement in the early stages of the crisis. Also, although trade linkages were not found to explain co movement during the period, the authors remind â€Å"this does not mean that they will not play an important role in future crises (as they have in the past)† (p. 2). The drivers of stock market correlation by Didier et al. do provide meaningful explanations of why we might expect markets to move together during crises, but they aren’t all excluded from working in the opposite direction (not just in crises). Assuming market correlations are in fact an unbiased and accurate measure of market comovement during crises, this would result in a significant loss of the benefits of international diversification during downturns.According to Butler and Joaquin’s (2002) test of an equally weighted portfolio amongst international markets, investors would get an annual return of 2% less than predicted by the normal distribution in extreme bear markets (5% left tail). T hey conclude that in this case investors may benefit from trying to predict which markets will have near-normal market correlations during bear markets, and then weight their portfolios more heavily in these markets. Is that (potential guesswork) really necessary? According to Asness, Israelov, and Liew (2010) the answer is no, at least if you are a long-term investor.Asness et al. compare the returns of holding a local portfolio vs. an equal-weight global portfolio, where they find that a global portfolio shows lower short term volatility (for one month and one year averages) but greater skewness where â€Å"simultaneous market crashes cause the global portfolios to experience worse risk adjusted crashes†(p. 6). Over the long run, though, they find that holding a global portfolio provides considerable insulation from local downturns, and the skewness of the global portfolio approaches zero.They contend that in the long run countries’ market returns are driven by count ry-specific underlying economic performance, and that international diversification insulates the investor from being exposed to any one underperforming country in concentration. This long run result gets back to the premise of modern portfolio theory, that is, combining assets that aren’t perfectly correlated, or don’t co-move in direct proportions. As we can see, it is hard to discredit the efficacy of international portfolio diversification by strictly examining rising international market correlations.Because market return data may not conform to the assumptions inherent to the correlation coefficient, there is uncertainty over its usefulness as a measure of market co-movement. Also, if the investor has a long-term horizon, the benefits from international diversification are still strong. References Asness, C. S. , Israelov, R. , & Liew, J. M. (2010). International diversification works (In the long run). Social Science Research Network, n/a. Retrieved from http:// www. retailinvestor. org/pdf/ForDiversify. pdf Bartram, S. M. , & Wang, Y. H. (2005).Another look at the relationship between cross-market correlation and volatility. Finance Research Letters, 2(2), 75-88. doi:10. 1016/j. frl. 2005. 01. 002 Bodie, Z. , Kane, A. , Marcus, A. , Perrakis, S. & Ryan, P. (2008). Investments: sixth Canadian edition. Canada: McGraw Hill. Butler, K. C. , & Joaquin, D. C. (2002). Are the gains from international portfolio diversification exaggerated? The influence of downside risk in bear markets. Journal of International Money and Finance, 21(7), 981-1011. doi:10. 1016/S0261-5606(02)00048-7 Campbell, R. A. , Forbes, C.S. , Koedijk, K. G. & Kofman, P. (2007). Increasing correlations or just fat tails? Journal of Empirical Finance, 15(2), 287-309. doi:10. 1016/j. jempfin. 2007. 01. 001 Didier, T. , Love, I. , Soledad, M. , & Peria, M. (2011). What explains comovement in stock market returns during the 2007–2008 crisis? International Journal of Finance and Economics, n/a. doi: 10. 1002/ijfe. 442 Forbes, K. J. , & Rigobon, R. (2002). No contagion, only interdependence: measuring stock market co movements. The Journal of Finance, 57(5), 2223-2261. doi: 10. 1111/0022-1082. 00494